Development and Social Change Essay Example for Free

Development and Social Change Essay â€Å"Although globalization made earlier appearances, the trend has unfolded with unprecedented speeds, and to unprecedented extents since the 1960s. † (SCHOLTE. 2000) This essay will explain how the forces of globalisation have shaped and will continue to shape, the financial, demographic, and political societies we see around us today. It will identify the extent to which sustained Globalization has â€Å" the crevice between poverty, comparative poverty, and luxury. † Such positive and negative attributes affect society on a number of different levels, â€Å" the individual, the household, the firm, the town, the region, the sector, the nation. † (Kaplinsky) This essay will provide and in-depth analysis and examples of how such global processes have worked to erode the fortunes of so many (Sierra Leone); whilst also being the catalyst for success in other areas (Mexico). (HELD. 2007) ‘The Race to the Bottom,’ is a term describing the intra-national contest for the most favourable environment for business trading, manufacture and investment. Following its successful application to join the World Trading Organisation (WTO) in November 2001, China has experienced a vast influx of foreign investment. This has – as expected – empowered the Chinese economy to the detriment of its former South-east Asian exporting partners. Hong Kong and Taiwan had nurtured the Chinese economy for a decade previously, and now find that their economies are being â€Å" hollowed out, as China sucks away jobs. † (CHAN. 2009) How did this happen? In the early 1990s China introduced its first minimum wage system with the intention of protecting its workforce. Due to the great versatility of China, the government came up with a formula (based upon local living costs; inflation etc. ) with which each city or region would publish and enforce its own minimum wage. The benchmark for all minimum wages set is between 40% and 60% of the average wage in that locality. Since 1993, according to a study by the Bureau of International Labour Affairs, almost all of the provincial governments have failed to maintain these standards – [see table 2]. Their desire to attract investment has forced the minimum wage : average wage percentage further down. Shenzhen, a model Chinese exports city, paid, on average, 10% less that the absolute minimum wage required by the government and international labour standards. Conversely, the city of Chongqing, which is not export-led or globally integrated, consistently achieves almost 10% more than its minimum required standards (49. 86% in 2000). Chan concludes a â€Å"worrying trend. † She suggests that; â€Å" as a region or province becomes more prosperous, it violates the national guidelines and seeks to maintain its attractiveness to foreign capital by keeping its minimum wage level low the benefits of globalisation with this competitive logic have not, and will not, trickle down to those who make the products. † (CHAN. 2009) The Human Development Report 2006-2008 uses Corrado Gini’s coefficient to highlight an increase in overall inequality from 0. 31 to 0. 45 during the initial years of reform. [Coefficient measures between 0 and 1 where 0 is complete equality]. (FACTSHEET. 2008) However, the benefits of neo-liberal economic reform in China seem to have had a positive effect on ‘Poverty. ’ Between 1990 and 2005 the influx of industry and trade bought a per capita growth averaging 8. 7%. Using the World Bank poverty line, (measured at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)) household surveys suggest that post 1981, 54% (500,000,000 people) of the population of China scrambled over the poverty line. (CHAN. 2009) In this sense, we must conclude that global economic integration in China has seen a significant reduction in poverty, but an increase in income inequality has come from overwhelming national development due to increasingly capitalist structures stemming from trade liberalization. What advocates of globalization emit is that two thirds of Chinese industry relies on coal, and just 7% of their energy sources are renewable. A report from the Financial Times found that air pollution in China caused by heavy industry and chemical production has led to the annual premature deaths of 400,000 (air quality); 300,000 (indoor air quality); and a further 60,000 due to poor water quality. (BBC. 2007) There is 1 country in the world where economic growth rate has consistently outpaced that of the Asian Tigers: Botswana (9% average annual growth). Botswana had a GDP per capita of just US$ 77 at independence from Britain (1966). It now stands at US$ 7,554 (GLOBAL PROPERTY. 2010). Kraay notes that; â€Å"A sustainable future in Africa rests on its ability to develop and maximise natural resources. Diamonds play a major role in these efforts. † Diamond extraction and production requires a large investment of initial capital. In the case of Botswana, DeBeers and the Government of Botswana invested 50:50 US$40 million in the Damtshaa mine. FDI in diamonds around Botswana accounts for 33% of GDP growth. Global trading and distribution of diamonds and other minerals accounted for 55% of total government revenues in the late 1990s. (MBENDI. 2009) â€Å"Botswana’s history of sound management, good governance [Botswana has an accountable parliament and holds regular democratic elections] and an emerging focus on enhancing regional competitiveness should serve it well as it continues efforts to diversify. † (WORLD BANK. 2009) So, to what extent can we propose Botswana as a model of how ‘Sustained Globalization’ can ‘Eliminate World Poverty? ’ Firstly it is important to note the income elasticity of diamonds and other such minerals. They are a luxury product and due to the current economic downturn, as real wages decrease, demand is likely to proportionally decrease also. Growth estimates for 2009-2010 predict a contraction of 10. 2%. It seems that over reliance on the global export market has forged vulnerabilities in an otherwise stable nation. However the non-mining private sector of Botswana has proved to have deep foundations, recording a 9. 4% market increase this year. Either way, prudent fiscal and taxation policy, and low level of public debt (3% of GDP) resulting from huge capital influx over the years, mean that national reserves are likely to hold out for the recession period. (MBENDI. 2009) Secondly, it is important to note (as was the case in China), that increase in GDP is not directly proportional to poverty decrease. The most deprived quintile share just 1% of GDP, whilst the second quintile accounts for 5. 9% (Gini coefficient 0. 6). This means that 47% of the population still live below the poverty line. Perhaps the capital gains still need more time to filter down through infrastructure development and reform? In 1966 there were just 3 miles of roads; now there are 4,000 miles, a public transportation system and a nation-wide telephone grid. (WORKMAN. 2006) Perhaps the figures are being distorted by the unstoppable force of HIV/AIDs and malaria that has hit Botswana so hard recently? It is impossible to say. What we can say, however, is that in order to reap the benefits of global trade in the long-term, Botswana must recognise the fragilities of basing their economy on an exhaustible and export-orientated resource. In 1991 the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under Froday Sankoh, launched assaults against the Government of Sierra Leone. Their goal was to combat ‘crime and corruption. ’ The ensuing 11-year conflict was funded throughout by revenues generated by the diamond trade (an estimated initial worth of US$ 125 million). A median estimate suggests the murder of 75,000 (USA Today and The Times). A less conservative opinion from the Agence France Presse believe the figure was nearer to 200,000. (WORLD BANK. 2009) Either way, the drain on capital, natural resources, labour demographic and widespread looting was funded by the global financial market and African integration with it. Capital obtained from ‘conflict diamonds’ was notably from consumerism in the global North. Following the end of the war in 2000, the country was exposed to anarchy and complete economic collapse. Drugs and arms trafficking in cocaine and ex-soviet weaponry was rife, and corrupt feudal political structures further intensified income inequality – Gini coefficient over 0. 6. In 2004 its trade deficit totalled $US 350 million. (FACTSHEET. 2005) In the same year the UN named Sierra Leone the poorest country in the world (based on PPP/capita); and â€Å" the worlds ‘least livable’ country, based on its poverty and the poor Quality of Life its citizens must endure. † (WORKMAN. 2006) Whose fault is it? Is it the greediness of the conflicting armies? Is it the presence of such a store of wealth in a poverty-stricken country with few other natural resources? Is it the emergence of a global market that has created cosmic demand for such commodities? Time will tell. What we can see is that again, (as was the case in China and Botswana) global financial demand caused a sharp increase in GDP of the country. In 1965 GPD in Sierra Leone was US$ 246; in 2000 it was US$1,330,429 – see Table. 3. We can also say that this does not in any way correlate to an increase in living standards or reduction in poverty. It represents a huge crack in the neo-liberal ideology and Shah’s suggestion that; â€Å"Sustained economic growth is the way to human progress. Economic globalisation in the form of freer circulation of capital would be beneficial to everyone. † (SHAH. 2009) This essay suggests that however trade and political systems are constructed, without complete socialism, conflict can, has, and will continue to peak at the emergence of valuable natural resources. We can also conclude that whilst globalization could â€Å"offer the best prospects for eliminating world poverty,† African history stands in the way of such an ideology. (Table 6) It is not, however, all doom and gloom for the globalization and poverty argument. Mexico in many ways lost the ‘Race to the bottom’ to China, but neo-liberal reform has played a vital role in the successful integration of the Mexican economy into the global manufacture and export market. Prior to the 1980s (and economic downturn), Mexican economics was characterised by protectionist policies, high tariffs and quotas, and restrictions to FDI. By 1981 choking fiscal profligacy and vulnerability to external conditions (notably the 1973 oil shock) caused an imbalance of payments and massive capital flight. This caused huge inflation and the worst recession since the 1930s, forcing devaluation of the Peso on numerous occasions and further recession. (SOMMER. 2008) The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) eliminated the almost all import and export taxes and infused a gradual fade-out of the majority of tariffs between Mexico, the US and Canada. Following initial success, (Table. 4) the government then furthered economic liberalization by implementing 11 free trade agreements with the EU, Japan, and countries in South and Central America. Table. 4 shows how Mexican commodities exported to the United States increases from US$39. 9 billion in 1993; to US$ 210. 8 billion in 2007 (437% increase). Over the same period GDP grew 46%. (SOMMER. 2008) The success of the Mexican model is based largely on efficiency and proximity. Maquiladoras are large manufacturing and export plants, the majority of which are located just south of the US border. There are around one million workers employed in any of the 3,000 clothing, furniture and electronic equipment factories. Their proximity to the US gains them a significant advantage in terms of lower indirect costs (90% of production is transported ‘North’ straightaway) than those of Asian Tigers and the Pacific Ring countries. (BORRAZ. 2007) In contrast to Sierra Leone and Botswana, GDP increase seems to have direct correlation with improvements in real wages; a negative correlation with income inequality; and an overall reduction in poverty. Evidence of its success is shown by a net decrease in Gini coefficient between 1992 and 2002 (Table 5). (FACTSHEET. 2005) Borraz shows that income is less concentrated and has a lower Gini coefficient in states that are more closely linked to the global economy. He suggests that states with stronger links to the world economy might offer proportionately higher wages to the unskilled workforce – in this case (young) women. Unskilled women in Mexico earn between 7% and 16% more than their counterparts in non-globalized or exporting states. Overall, in 2002, 7 out of 9 states in Mexico have seen a decrease in income inequality. (BORRAZ. 2007) Why then, has Mexico succeeded in reducing poverty, whilst Sierra Leone has not? According to Borraz there are two main reasons for Mexican success; 1. Commitment to universal education in the 1940s realized a significant increase in skilled labour and higher overall productivity – sustained GDP growth of 3-4% from 1940. Governmental organizations like PROGRESA have hugely enhanced school attendance rates and decreased child labour. In November 1999 PROGRESA strategies accounted for 82% of the 25% of boys who left work to choose basic or higher education. Thus it was inward looking development strategies prior to neo-liberal reform meant the basic infrastructures for rapid growth were already there. 2. Luck. On the verge of complete inward economic collapse, the discovery of the Cantarell oil fields in 1976 sustained an otherwise weakened and fluctuating Mexican economy. (BORRAZ. 2007) However, it is true that NAFTA and other trade liberalization schemes in the Americas have reduced income inequalities and increased real wages in Mexico – but at what cost? ; The violation of human rights of a million of underpaid (US$ 3. 40/day); overworked (up to 60 hours/week); underage (girls often start at 12 or 13) workers with minimum knowledge of their rights. â€Å"In 1987 a worker had to work 8 hours and 47 minutes to buy the basic food basket for a family of four. Today it takes 34 hours. (CORPWATCH. 2009) The pollution of New River in Mexicali Valley [which runs into the Rio Grande] is now dumped with 130 million gallons of industrial waste each day. â€Å"According to the Texas Department of Health, since NAFTA went into effect the Hepatitis A rate for Cameron County shot up from 17. 8 per 100,000 residents to 87. 4 per 100,000 an increase of almost 400%. † (CORPWATCH. 2009) The Zapatistas have also suffered hugely from opening the agricultural market to mass produced US market-garden exports. Their anti-globalization ideology highlights that their inability to compete with mechanically harvested, artificially fertilized and genetically modified imports from the US. NAFTA also eliminated crop subsidies for Mexico while US farmers still receive them. The agrarian based society has directly suffered from a decrease in real wages and an increase in comparative poverty due to open trade. Further, â€Å"China [Page 2 Table 1] has weakened the allure of Maquiladoras in recent years and some report that more than 500 plants have been closed since the beginning of the decade. † (SOMMER. 2009) Currently, the future of the Mexican economy is unknown. Sharp decreases in PEMEX oil production and the current financial crisis in the U. S. is revealing more weaknesses in the Mexican export strategy. (RANDEWICH. 2008) Conclusion Does â€Å"Sustained globalisation offers the best prospects for eliminating world poverty. † ? Firstly there is no confirmed method of effectively measuring either ‘Globalization’ or ‘Poverty. ’ One can not accurately judge the benefits/detrimental effects of globalization without a baseline measure for poverty. QOL indicators, the Gini coefficient, and GDP are subject to variations and outside influences that cannot be measured or corrected (E. g. measuring GDP in Kerala; or measuring the Gini coefficient of China). The Neo-liberal argument that increased density of economic integration between countries will increase overall efficiency due to the specialization of resource use – is likely to be correct. The majority of trade liberalization cases show an overall increase in GDP. This cannot be taken further to suggest that it directly benefits those living in poverty. Further, in the case of Mexico and China, evidence suggests trade liberalization pits global forces against each other and with no weight divisions and no handicaps, smaller regions, towns, industries and households cannot be expected to win. â€Å"The eradication of global inequality requires much more than simply repeating the tired rhetoric of anti-imperialism, anti-capitalism or, even worse, marking globalization work for the poor. † (HELD. 2007) Claire Short’s White Paper (Title) fails to recognise this, suggesting 5 common elements to successful poverty reduction based around a neo-liberal framework: 1. Openness to trade and eagerness to attract FDI. 2. Political stability and competent governments committed to economic growth. 3. Savings and investment of at least 25% of national income. 4. Economic stability: controlled inflation and government budgeting; avoiding production collapse. 5. Market allocation of resources: minimal necessary government intervention. (DFID. 2006) Such claims can be considered naive. The DFID paper reads like a propaganda policy designed to gain electoral support. This essay suggests that there are only three conclusions that can be drawn. 1. That trade liberalization generally incurs an increase in international trade and GDP. 2. â€Å"Every international institution throughout history has been hierarchical and composed of dominant and subordinate states; there has never been, and in the future is never likely to be, an egalitarian and democratic international system. † (HELD. 2007) 3. â€Å"Globalization is in fast forward, and the world’s ability to understand and react to it is in slow motion. † (TURNER. 2003) Table 1 (WORLD BANK. 2009) (CHAN. 2009) Table 3. Estimated GDP Sierra Leone (WORLD BANK. 2009) TABLE. 4 (SOMMER. 2009) Table. 5 (CHAN. 2007) Table 6. (DFID. 2006) ABOUT. 2009. The History of Transportation [online] [Accessed 28th December 2009] Available from: http://inventors. about. com/library/inventors/bl_history_of_transportation. htm. ADELZADEH, A. 2008. Simulation Models of 5 African Economies. Designing Africa’s Poverty Strategies: Creating the Capacity for Policy Simulation. [online] [Accessed 3rd January 2010] Available from: http://models. wider. unu. edu/africa_web/input_login. php? class=bw_quickiesinstance=quickiescountry=bw

Relationship Between Ontology Epistemology And Methodology Philosophy Essay

Relationship Between Ontology Epistemology And Methodology Philosophy Essay There is no doubt that one can only grasp the sociological knowledge when examining the process of thoughts that stand behind every single research in social science. In essence, the ontological and epistemological positions represent the basis of the work of political scientists. On the surface, these positions are often not apparent but they can be demonstrated by the process of methodology. Therefore, it is, to a large degree, necessary to apprehend the connection between the foundations of research. The first part of this essay will focus on the definition of the these key concepts of research: ontology, epistemology and methodology. Furthermore, the essay will examine and evaluate the connection between the ontological and epistemological positions, such as Positivism and Interpretivism. Secondly, the essay will concentrate on the analysis of the relationship between these three stances in terms of social research. It will be argued that there is a close and logical relationship between the ontology and epistemology but also methodology, however some other perspectives will be take into account as well. Ontology and epistemology play very significant role in philosophy but also in the work of political scientists because both terms are used in relation to the discussion of theoretical issues in their thesis. It can be argued that these theoretical positions are fundamental to their process of research and scientists inclination to subject as they shape the approach to theory and the methods that are employed by social scientist (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 184). It is vital to recognize that both ontology and epistemology are mainly based on the researchers beliefs and personal persuasion about the conception of world and have certain methodological consequences (Hay, 2002: p. 61). The first term ontology can be used to relate to the scientific and philosophical theory of being. It primarily deals with the elementary structure of the world and what exactly does it signify to exist in that world. In other words, ontology is concerned with the question: is there a real world out there that is independent of our knowledge of it? (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 185).1 To point out, there are two distinct ontological positions: firstly, foundationalism postulates that the real world exists as a mosaic which is consisted of various substances existing in the world, individually of human experience, knowledge and thought; secondly, anti-foundationalism predicates that the real world does not occur independently of our knowledge, however it is socially constructed by human actors (Grix, 2004: p. 61). It must be noted that the ontological issues have substantial theoretical significance. To a certain extent, ontological matters are inextricably linked with the epistemological foundation of research. The second term epistemology represents the theory of knowledge and its epistemological assumption is focused on the study of the nature of the world and how we know what we know (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 185), so it is directed at knowledge-gathering process (Grix, 2004: p. 63). In case of epistemology, there are also two major epistemological positions being associated to foundationalist and anti-foundationalist ontology: firstly, positivist epistemology2 views the world as existing independently of knowledge of it (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 190), therefore the objectivity is achievable due to the fact that the things are perceived by individuals in the identical manner; secondly, interpretivist epistemology3 concerns with the disputability of objective or value-free observation which is largely influenced by the personal perceptions and social constructions of the world. The key aspect of this argument is that the essence of the world is illuminated by various actors whose interpreta tions are construed by the observer, therefore this double hermeneutic4 results in limited objectivity (Grix, 2004: p. 81).5 The term methodology arises from the ontological and epistemological position of the researcher, therefore it is more than evident that between ontology, epistemology and methodology is close interconnection. Methodology is mainly associated with the design of the research, and the approach to data analysis. Furthermore, this term is generally employed to refer to the whole process of data collection in the research. It is indispensable to realize that certain types of epistemologies require the specific use of survey methods (Hay, 2002: p. 63).6 ____________________________________________________ 1 In terms of political realm, the ontological question can be formulate as: what is the nature of the social and political reality to be investigated? (Hay, 2002: p. 61) 2 Positivism results from the empiricist tradition of natural science and emphasizes that there is analogy between social science and natural science; hence according to positivists view, the relationship between social phenomena may be formed, using theory to generate hypotheses which can be tested by direct observation (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 194). From this follows, that the real world exists and represents an objective entity, therefore it is possible to perceive the reality around us, independently of our knowledge of it. In positivism, quantitative research tools 7 are involved in order to be able to generalize and replicate collected data. It is important to underline that the main aim of positivists is to explain a particular behavior rather than the meaning of this behavior (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 194). 3 On the other hand, Interpretivism (or Relativism) is characterized by its denial of objective real world. According to interpretivists, the real world does not exist as it is constructed through the interactions of individuals (Grix, 2004: p. 83). Additionally, it is impossible to use a pure observation in order to perceive social phenomena, mainly because they are dependent on the personal interpretation. So it might be said that every observation affects what is observed thus objectivity cannot be maintained considering that researcher are not detached from the subjectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Grix, 2004: p. 83). In interpretism, qualitative research methods8 are applied to create a more precise understanding of social behavior and clearly ignore aspects, such as the meaning and explanation of that behavior. 4 The term double hermeneutic relates to the act of interpreting an actors perception and interpretation (Interpretation 1) of his or her situation in a particular context (Interpretation 2): effectively an interpretation of an interpretation (Grix, 2002: p. 81); therefore this double interpretation is less unbiased and objective than the initial interpretation. The Analysis of Relationship between Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology It is essential to highlight that the relationship between the key terms ontology, epistemology and methodology is directional in the way that ontology logically precedes epistemology which logically precedes methodology (Hay, 2002: p. 63). Furthermore, these concepts should be set apart considering that they are inextricably linked (Grix, 2004: p. 60). According to Marsh and Furlong, ontology and epistemology represent a skin not a sweater therefore it is clearly impossible to put on and take off these research foundations whenever the research chooses (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 184). This reflects the methodological consequences of different positions and indicates that researchers demand various positions in order account for their selected method. Nevertheless, the ontological positions are very significant in terms of interrelationship between epistemology and methodology, thus it could be said that certain ontological positions result in epistemological positions. It is worth noting that the foundationalists beliefs (ontology) represent a premise for positivist or a realist traditions (epistemology) of research whereas the anti-foundationalists views result in an interpretivist position. This implies that there is strong link between all components of research, therefore it is vital to approach these major blocks of research col lectively. According to Mason, the role of epistemology lies in the fact that it leads to creation of knowledge and explanations about the ontological components of social world (Grix, 2004: p. 64). Moreover, it is substantial to realize that there might be more than one particular epistemology, thus at the same time they will not be analogous or coincident with their own ontological position. However, it is clear that various epistemological positions require to employ a divers methodology, therefore it can be argued that there is dependency between epistemology and methodology.7 To a certain extent, this means that different ontological and epistemological positions can result in completely diverse views of the same type of social phenomena. Another relevant point is that Spencer raises a very apt question: how can we have a theory about what knowledge is, without some presupposition about the nature of the knowledge? (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 188) Therefore, in Spencers opinion, ontology is prior to epistemology so that knowledge can be logically generated from their close relationship. While these two concepts are narrowly related, they have to be kept separate in order to start the research from a persons view of the world (Grix, 2004: p. 66).8 Conclusion In conclusion, it is extremely crucial to recognize that these three theoretical positions play a pivotal role in a set of conceptions concerning the research theory. Due to the high level of generality, ontology is a type of concept that is rarely utilized. However, epistemology and methodology are used more frequently. Most importantly, otology, epistemology and methodology are interlinking and dependent on each other and together denotes the most important contrasts between various ways of knowing. Finally, Marsh and Furlong maintain a position that there is an evident interdependence between epistemology and methodology, also Hay sees a directional dependence in relation to ontology, epistemology and methodology. However Smith advocates that it is not possible to create a hierarchy between these terms because all of them are narrowly interrelated together. ____________________________________________________ 5 In a sense, epistemology can be employed in the connection with positivist epistemology which means that the knowledge claims basically are grounded on the universal principles of the natural science. The most crucial point is, therefore, that the ontological assumptions made about the nature of the reality and world, in some way, have far-reaching consequences for the chosen epistemological position. 6 In case of a positivist epistemology, the research methods are in form of surveys and questionnaires in order to be analyzed quantitatively. Whereas, a interpretists epistemology uses methods, such as participant observations and unsystematic interviews to gain quantitative analysis and data. 7 In Brymans view, there is nothing inherent in the properties of the different methodologies which prevents their use by researchers who are operating from different epistemological positions (Read Marsh, 2002: p. 232-3). 8 On the other hand, it is crucial to highlight that some scholars, such as Smith, consider ontology and epistemology as two interconnected realms. According Smiths view, neither ontology nor epistemology [is] prior to the other, but instead [he] sees the two of them as mutually and inextricably interrelated (March Furlong, 2010: p. 188). From this statement follows that it is not possible to undermine the importance of ontology at the expense of epistemology or the other way around, therefore ontology cannot be considered as prior to epistemology. Appendix Appendix 1: The Definition of Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Social Research 7 When qualitative data is adopted in social science as a way for conducting an experiment or analysis, its aim is principally to create a complete and detailed description for a particular fact. Qualitative data is presented in form of words and images. In this case, the knowledge claim can be supported by individuals who develop subjective and direct concern with the meaning of involved experience in order to understand the complexity of views. Therefore, it is important for researcher to become subjectively engaged in the subject matter (Grix, 2004: p. 117-8). 8 The quantitative data has a very straightforward purpose, to classify features, count them, construct statistical model in an attempt to explain what is observed. For that reason, quantitative data involves numbers and statistics. This type of data reflects a need to explore causes that affect certain results, thus the assumption is also based on thorough observation and measurement of objective reality in the world. The researcher, in this instance, tends to be objective in terms of the concerns (Grix, 2004: p. 122). However, as it follows from the description of qualitative and quantitative data, the major difference between these two types of data lies in their distinct functions. It is quite essential to realize the fact that qualitative data is related to research that inclines to use an inductive approach to develop theory; therefore the researchers gather the data from the study of a particular sample of people and maintain an understanding of social behavior as it arises from this data. On the contrary, quantitative data is involved in research that is directed to deductive approach, using predominantly hypothesis and examining it in order to prove true for the general sample (McBride Schostak, 2011).

Comparison of Stroke Rehabilitation Guidelines

Comparison of Stroke Rehabilitation Guidelines Stroke is considered to be the third cause of death and disability for millions of people in developed countries (1). Stroke is the clinical manifestation of a wide range of pathologies, with different etiologies and prognoses, and many risk factors. Stroke is defined as a syndrome characterized by rapidly developing clinical symptoms and/or signs of focal loss of cerebral function, in which symptoms last more than 24 hours or lead to death, with no apparent cause other than that it is a vascular origin. Stroke victims who survive the first attack may have persisting impairments such as cognitive impairments, upper and lower limb impairments and speech disabilities. The United Kingdoms prevalence of stroke in the population is estimated to be 47 per 10000 making stroke the most common cause of adult physical disability (1; 2; 3). In the United State the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) estimated that 15000 veterans are in hospitals with a diagnosis of stroke every year (4). Stroke rehabilitation is a main factor in helping stroke survivors to regain their functional ability when medical and surgical interventions are limited (5). Physical therapy plays a major role in stroke rehabilitation. Physical therapists choose the duration and type of therapy given and provide education for stroke patients. Stroke rehabilitation aims at giving the patients the ability to regain maximum and full potential in functional activities and restoration of motor control (6; 7; 8; 5). Three main factors in rehabilitation contribute to the speed and quality of recovery. These factors are: treatment session duration and frequency, type of treatment approach used for rehabilitation, and providing education about the condition for patients during and after therapy (2; 3; 7; 8; 9). Physical therapy rehabilitation for stroke patients is designed to impact the disabilities and impairments associated with post stroke conditions. Rehabilitation is mainly aimed at limiting any deterioration of impairments and maximizing the functional level for patients suffering from stroke. To be able to deliver this, physical therapists should follow a certain set of guidelines which will insure better outcomes and avoid unnecessary practices that could prolong and delay optimum gain of function (6; 7). It is unclear whether physical therapists in Kuwait follow any specific guidelines in stroke rehabilitation. Therefore, it would be plausible to learn more about current local rehabilitation procedures. This may help in the further development of local rehabilitation procedures and practice guidelines, optimization of treatment and rehabilitation management, improvement in stroke patients health and quality of life, and minimization of conflicted rehabilitation practices that prolong therapy which in turn affect and burden the health system with increased number of patients (6; 8; 10; 11). We hypothesize that physical therapist in Kuwait rehabilitation do not follow stroke rehabilitation guidelines and science based practices in stroke rehabilitation. Therefore the aims of this study are to: Explore if stroke rehabilitation in Kuwait follow general guidelines of stroke rehabilitation regarding frequency of treatment sessions and duration of each session. Investigate if physical therapists specializing in the field of neuroscience in Kuwait follow general guidelines of stroke rehabilitation regarding their treatment approaches. Identify if education is being provided for stroke patients about their condition during and after rehabilitation. Literature Review: Stroke is defined as a syndrome in which clinical symptoms and/or signs of cerebral function loss develop rapidly, and last for more than 24 hours or result in death. Stroke can be classified according to the cause, which is either ischemic or hemorrhagic. Ischemic strokes account for 85% of all strokes, while 15% account for hemorrhagic strokes. Over 10% of patients who had a first stroke will have a second one within a year, and the risk of recurrence within 5 years is 15-42% (1). There are a wide range of conditions that lead to stroke, such as hypertension and diabetes. Each year, 5.45 million deaths are attributed to stroke, and over 9 million survive. Survivors often experience a wide range of persisting impairments. Common impairments include Physical disability, cognitive impairment, Lower limb impairments, and speech difficulties (1). Rehabilitation is an important part after survival from a stroke. Rehabilitation was defined in the New Zealand guideline for management of stroke as a problem-solving and educational process aimed at reducing the disability and handicap experienced by someone as a result of disease, always within the limitations imposed by both available resources and the underlying disease (12). Its of utmost importance that the stroke patient understands, and receives education concerning his/her condition and what limitations may persist, even after rehabilitation (12). Reker D. M. et al, researched whether adherence to post stroke guidelines was associated with greater patient satisfaction. They used a prospective inception cohort study design for new stroke admissions, including post-acute care, and they made follow-up interviews at 6 months after the stroke injury. Two hundred and eighty eight patients were included in the study, from eleven Veterans Affairs medical centers (VAMCs). The main outcome measures used in this study were: 1) compliance with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), 2) patient satisfaction with care provided, and 3) stroke-specific instruments. Results have shown that, for every 10% percent increase in guidelines compliance, the average value of patient satisfaction increases by 1.5 points for the mean overall satisfaction score, which ranges from 4 to 39, and includes items for hospital satisfaction, home satisfaction, and overall satisfaction. The study concluded that compliance to AHRQ guidelines is sign ificantly associated with patient satisfaction (7). Several comparisons between Stroke Rehabilitation Protocols/ guidelines have been performed. This is beneficial in establishing the best treatment, with regards to dosing, intensity, duration, as well as efficiency and efficacy of interventions. A study by McNaughton H, et al examined the practice and outcomes of stroke rehabilitation between New Zealand and the United States facilities. This study used a Prospective observational cohort design and included 1161 participants from six United States (U.S.) Rehabilitation facilities and 130 participants from one New Zealand rehabilitation facility, all above the age of 18 years. In this study, New Zealand patients were older than the United States patients. However, the severity of initial stroke was higher for the U.S. patients. Despite that fact, patients in the U.S. were discharged earlier. They also had more intensive therapy, represented in higher durations spent with physical therapy and occupational therapy professionals. Also, U .S therapists tended to spend less time on assessment and non-functional activities, while focusing more on active management of patients. Results showed that, U.S. participants had better outcomes represented by changes in Functional Independence Measure FIM scores and fewer discharges to institutional care (13.2% vs. 21.5%). This study illustrates that duration and intensity of therapy can be adjusted to gain a better outcome. Also, it is important to know which activities are being done in the treatment session, and find out if they contribute to a better outcome of rehabilitation (10). Horn et al. investigated the effect of specific rehabilitation therapies in stroke rehabilitation on outcomes, taking into account the differences between patients. In this study, they wanted to examine the associations between patient characteristics, rehabilitation therapies, neurotropic medication, nutritional support, and time of starting therapy with functional outcomes and discharge destination for stroke inpatients. Discharge total, motor, and cognitive FIM (functional independence measure) scores and discharge destinations were registered for 830 patients with moderate or severe strokes from five U.S. inpatient rehabilitation facilities. Results showed that earlier initiation of rehabilitation, time spent in higher-level rehabilitation activities, such as upper-extremity control, gait and problem solving, usage of newer psychiatric medications, and gastric feeding, were all associated with better outcomes. The study also illustrated that a variety of Physical Therapy, Occupat ional Therapy, and Speech Language Pathology activities were correlated with higher or lower FIM scores. On one hand, more minutes spent per day on PT gait activities, OT upper-extremity control activities and home management, and SLP problem solving activities were associated significantly with higher FIM scores. On the other hand, more minutes spent per day on PT bed mobility and sitting, OT bed mobility, and SLP auditory comprehension and orientation were consistently associated with lower FIM scores (11). One study described Physical Therapy intervention for stroke patients in inpatient facilities within the U.S. (13). Six rehabilitation facilities in the U.S. included 972 subjects with stroke injury. Variables studied were time spent in therapy, and content and activities that were used in rehabilitation. The mean duration of stay in the inpatient facilities was 18.7 days, and received PT was on an average of 13.6 days. Patient spent 57.15 minutes on average for Physical therapy treatment every day. Activities of gait, transferring, and pre-functional activities, which include strengthening exercises, balance training, and motor learning, were the most performed interventions. Also, therapists included activities that incorporated different functions into one functional activity. This study implicated that a focus of physical therapist when providing treatment is optimizing functional activities, as they were the most frequent activities performed. However, activities to remediate im pairments and to compensate for lost functions were also included in the treatment sessions (13). Brocklehurst et al. investigated the use of physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy for patients suffering from stroke, as they mentioned that those interventions formed the basis of stroke rehabilitation. The study included 135 stroke patients from five general and one geriatric hospital, in South Manchester. Of the 135 subjects, 107 received PT, 35 received OT, and 19 received speech therapy. Results were obtained after measuring the rate of change in function over a one year period. Patients, who had more severe disabilities, and the worst prognosis, were more likely to get physical therapy treatment. Factors that determine type and specificity of physical therapy to stroke rehabilitation were also examined. Some of the factors were extent of disability, and disability-associated morbidities, such as fecal incontinence, spasticity, sensory loss and dysphasia. Even though the most disabled received the most physical therapy treatment, they showed the least improv ement in function even after six months of therapy. This study also concluded that patients, whose progress was poorest, received more physical therapy (5). Hsiu-Chen Huang et al. investigated the impact of timing and dose of rehabilitation delivery on the functional recovery of patients suffering from stroke. In this study, a retrospective review of medical charts was done for 76 patients who were admitted to a regional hospital for a first-ever stroke. Patients had multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs, including PT, OT, and a continuous rehabilitation for at least three months. The main outcome measure for this study was the Barthel index, taken at initial assessment, one month, three months, six months and one year after stroke. Results of this study showed that there is a dose-dependent effect of rehabilitation on functional outcome improvements of stroke patients. Also, earlier delivery of rehabilitation is associated with lasting effects on functional recovery up to one year post-stroke (14). It is unclear whether physical therapists follow evidence based practice many countries of the world including Kuwait. There is no doubt the era of evidence based practice is upon us for many reasons including better treatment outcomes, patient satisfaction, reimbursement amongst others. In one survey study, conducted by Iles and Davidson, examination of physical therapists current practice in Australia was undertaken. This study found that there are several barriers in the way of evidence-based practice. Those barriers included time to stay up to date, access to journals, access to summaries of evidence that are easy to understand, and lack of personal skills in looking for and evaluating research evidence (15). Salbach et al. examined the determinants of research use in clinical decision making among physical therapists treating post-stroke patients. Two hundred and sixty three physical therapists from the state of Ontario, Canada, responded to a survey questionnaire, containing items for evaluating practitioner and organizational characteristics and perception of research believed to be influencing evidence-based practice. The survey also contained the frequency of using research evidence in clinical decision making in a typical month. Results showed that, only a small percentage of therapists (13.33%) reported using research in clinical decision making six times a month or more. However, most therapists (52.9%) reported using research 2-5 times a month, while 33.8% used research 0-1 time per month. In this study, research use was associated with the academic preparation in the principles of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP), research participation, service as a clinical instructor, being self -effective in implementing EBP, attitude towards research, perceived organizational support of research use, and access to bibliographic databases at work. This study concluded that a third of therapists rarely apply research evidence in clinical decision making. Suggested interventions to promote research use included education in the principles of EBP, EBP self-efficacy, having a positive attitude towards research, and involvement in research (8). A study by Ogiwara, made a comparison between the bases of treatment between Japanese physical therapists, and Swedish therapists. They investigated the reasons why the Japanese choose certain approaches of treatment when handling stroke patients, and then compared the results with those of Swedish therapists. Swedish therapists attributed their choice of treatment to hands-on experience and participation in practical courses, in which various techniques are taught. Bobaths approach was the only method that was commonly continued to be used after graduation in both countries. Results have illustrated that Swedish therapists were more interested in new methods of treatment (91%), whereas only 77% of Japanese therapists had an interest. Implication of their results might mean that Japanese therapists are interested in their treatment approach, and also show that introducing new approaches of treatments takes a longer time in comparison to Sweden. Additionally, Swedish therapists tend t o make a combination of treatment approaches, while Japanese physical therapists tend to follow only one particular approach. Several reasons were speculated for addressing the differences in treatment protocols, some of which were: 1) diversity of cultures, 2) diversity of health the care system, 3) availability of equipment and space needed to follow a certain new approach, 4) belief of efficacy of a certain approach and 5) the language barrier imposed on Japanese therapist, and availability of translated literature. This study showed that there are several barriers and differences encountered when the need of application of new approaches is desired (9). Wachters-Kaufmann et al. conducted a study regarding the conferring of information for stroke patients and caregivers. Their study investigated how information was provided to patients and caregivers and how they actually preferred to be informed. The actual and desired information correspond in terms of content, frequency, and method of presentations well as the actual and desired information. The study was done in the North of the Netherlands and the stroke unit of University hospital Groningen. The General practitioners (GP) distributed a guide from a community-based study of cognitive disorders and quality of life (CognitiVA) after a stroke. The guide was given three months after the stroke. For the final measurement of the study, which was 12 months later, the patients and caregivers participated in a telephone survey, which asked about three things: 1) professional stroke-care providers, 2) other sources of information, 3) the guide. Fifty one patients and 38 caregivers were co ntacted, of which 18 patients and 11 caregivers declined to be interviewed for various reasons. The results showed that the GPs, neurologist, and physical therapists were both the actual and desired information providers. As for the content, the actual content was the guide, whereas the desired was mostly medical information concerning the course of the disease, its cause, consequences, and treatment. Regarding the frequency, the actual and desired was within 24 hours of the stroke, and one day to two weeks later, and after two weeks. As for the method of presentation of information, the patients and caregivers mostly desired only verbal (73% patients, 89% caregivers) (16). Methods: This comparative design research project will compare the stroke rehabilitation program implemented in Kuwait with the established guidelines for stroke rehabilitation in the United States of America. The rehabilitation program stroke patients are receiving in Kuwaits Ministry of Health hospitals, specifically, Al-Jahra, Mubarak, Farwanya, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, and Al-Sabah hospitals will be investigated. Subjects of the study will be physical therapists practicing in the stroke rehabilitation field. We will provide physical therapists experienced in stroke rehabilitation with self-administered questionnaires, which will be collected after one week. We will also examine patient records over a three week period. To access the records, we will get permission from the head of the physical therapy department of each hospital as well as each hospitals director. Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval will be obtained prior to any data collection. Approval from the Minist ry of Healths IRB will be obtained as well as approval from Kuwait University. Data will then be compared with the established American Stroke Guidelines. All data gathered during the study will be kept under lock and key. Any identifiable information obtained from patient files and records will only be accessible to the primary investigator. No identifiable information will be used for publication purposes. Confidentiality will be insured throughout the study duration. Subjects: The subjects of this study will be physical therapists working in Kuwaits Ministry of Health hospitals neurology department and with experience in out-patient stroke rehabilitation. Tools: To investigate the frequency and duration of treatment, we will look into the records, which are the patients files. There is also a section in the questionnaire that will ask about the frequency and duration of sessions. As for finding out the treatment approach patients are receiving, a self-administered questionnaire will be distributed at selected MOH hospitals, specifically at Al-Jahra, Mubarak, Farwanya, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, and Al-Sabah hospitals. Therapists will be given the questionnaire to fill out. In order to evaluate the type of education given to patients, educational guides, or pamphlets, about the patients condition available at the hospital and distributed to patients will be looked at. The questionnaire will also ask about different patient education techniques used by the participants. For comparison of data, we will compare the data we obtain with the American Stroke Association guidelines. Questionnaire: The questionnaire will consist of several questions used in the Ogiwara (9) questionnaire as well as others pertinent to our study population. The questionnaire will consist of four parts: demographic information questions concerning the therapists professional history and experience Questions concerning the rehabilitation program: treatment approach, and frequency and duration of sessions. questions concerning the types of education techniques Each questionnaire will have a cover letter explaining the purpose of the study, and a consent form. Data Analysis The data will be analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) (v. 17.0) to describe means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. Once the data is analyzed, we will compare the data we collected with the general guidelines and treatment approaches in the literature. Expected Outcomes and Recommendations Our expectation for this study is that physical therapists in the state of Kuwait will not be following the American stroke rehabilitation guidelines. Due to cultural differences between the two countries, establishing new guidelines for the stroke rehabilitation in Kuwait might be necessary, addressing the nature of referral to physical therapy in Kuwait, and making recommendations for increasing treatment duration if needed. Also, it should be mentioned what type of special equipment might be used in the process of rehabilitation. References: Rudd A, Olfe C.W. (2002, Feb). Aetiology and pathology of stroke. Vol. 9, pg 32-36. Hafsteinsdottir T.B, Vergunst M, Lindeman E, Schuurmans M. (2010, 29 July). Educational needs of patients with a stroke and their caregivers: A systematic review of the literature. www.elsevier.com/locate/pateducou Hoffman T, McKenna K, Herd C, Wearing S. Written stroke materials for stroke patients and their careers: perspectives and practices of health professionals. Top Stroke Rehabil 2007;14(1):88-97 Duncan P, Zorowitz R, Bates B, Choi J, Glasberg J, Graham G, Katz R, Lamberty K, Reker D. Management of Adult Stroke Rehabilitation Care: A Clinical Practice Guideline. (Stroke. 2005; 36:e100-e143.) Brocklehurst J.C, Andrews K, Richards B, Laycock P. J. (1978, 20 MAY). How much physical therapy for patients with stroke? Vol. 1, 1307- 1310. British Medical journal. Kollen, B, Kwakkel G, Lindeman E. (2006, 11 July). Functional Recovery after Stroke: A Review of Current Developments in Stroke Rehabilitation Research. Vol.1, No.1, 75-80. Reker D.M, Duncan P. W, Horner R.D, Hoenig H, Samsa G.P, Hamilton B, Dudley T.K.(2002, June) Post acute Stroke Guideline Compliance Is Associated With Greater Patient Satisfaction. Arch Phys Med Rehabil Vol. 83, pg 750-756. Salbach N, Guilcher S, Jaglal S, Davis A. (2010) Determinants of research use in clinical decision making among physical therapists providing services post-stroke: a cross-sectional study. http://www.implementationscience.com/content/5/1/77 Ogiwara S. (1997) Physical therapy in stroke rehabilitation: A comparison of bases for treatment between Japan and Sweden.vol.9 Pg. 63-69, Journal of physical therapy sciences. McNaughton H, DeJong G, Smout J, Melvin L, Brandstater M. (2005, Dec) A Comparison of Stroke Rehabilitation Practice and Outcomes between New Zealand and United States Facilities. Vol. 86, suppl.2, Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Horn D, DeJong G. Smout J, Gassaway J, James R, Conroy B. (2005, Dec) Stroke Rehabilitation Patients, Practice, and Outcomes: Is Earlier and More Aggressive Therapy Better? Vol. 86, pg. 101-114, suppl. 2, Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Life after stroke: New Zealand guideline for management of stroke (November 2003). Jette D.U, Latham N.K, Smout R.J, Gassaway J, Slavin M.D, Horn S.D (2005, March) Physical Therapy Interventions for Patients with Stroke in Inpatient Rehabilitation Facilities. Vol. 85, num. 3, pg. 238-248, physical therapy. Huang H, Chung K, Lai D, Sung S. The Impact of Timing and Dose of Rehabilitation Delivery on Functional Recovery of Stroke Patients (J Chin Med Assoc: May 2009 , Vol 72, No 5) Iles R, Davidson M. Evidence based practice: a survey of physiotherapists current practice. Physical therapy. Res. Int. 11(2) 93-103 (2006) Watchers-Kaufmann C, Schuling J, The H, Jong B. Actual and desired information provision after a stroke. Patient Education and Counseling 56 (2005) 211-217 Appendices Appendix 1 American Stroke Association Guidelines: E. Patient and Family/Caregiver Education Background The patient and family/caregivers should be given information and provided with an opportunity to learn about the causes and consequences of stroke, potential complications, and the goals, process, and prognosis of rehabilitation. Recommendations Recommend that patient and family/caregiver education be provided in an interactive and written format. Recommend that clinicians consider identifying a specific team member to be responsible for providing information to the patient and family/caregiver about the nature of the stroke, stroke management rehabilitation and outcome expectations, and their roles in the rehabilitation process. Recognize that the family conference is a useful means of information dissemination. Recommend that patient and family education be documented in the patients medical record to prevent the occurrence of duplicate or conflicting information from different disciplines. N. Educate Patient/Family, Reach Shared Decision about Rehabilitation Program, and Determine Treatment Plan Objective ensure the understanding of common goals among staff, family, and caregivers in the stroke rehabilitation process and, therefore, optimize the patients functional recovery and community reintegration. Recommendations Recommend that the clinical team and family/caregiver reach a shared decision about the rehabilitation program.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  The clinical team should propose the preferred environment for rehabilitation and treatments on the basis of expectations for recovery.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Describe to the patient and family the treatment options, including the rehabilitation and recovery process, prognosis, estimated length of stay, frequency of therapy, and discharge criteria.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  The patient, family, caregiver, and rehabilitation team should determine the optimal environment for rehabilitation and preferred treatment. Recommend that the rehabilitation program be guided by specific goals developed in consensus with the patient, family, and rehabilitation team. Recommend that the patients family/caregiver participate in the rehabilitation sessions and be trained to assist patient with functional activities, when needed. Recommend that patient and caregiver education be provided in an interactive and written format. Provide the patient and family with an information packet that may include printed material on subjects such as the resumption of driving, patient rights/responsibilities, support group information, and audiovisual programs on stroke. Recommend that the detailed treatment plan be documented in the patients record to provide integrated rehabilitation care. Intensity of Therapy The heterogeneity of the studies in all aspects-patients, designs, treatments, comparisons, outcome measures, and results-combined with the borderline results in many of the trials limits the specificity and strength of any conclusions that can be drawn from them. Overall, the trials support the general concept that rehabilitation can improve functional outcomes, particularly in patients with lesser degrees of impairment. Weak evidence exists for a dose-response relationship between the intensity of the rehabilitation intervention and the functional outcomes. However, the lack of definition of lower thresholds, below which the intervention is useless, and upper thresholds, above which the marginal improvement is minimal, for any treatment, makes it impossible to generate specific guidelines. Partridge et al did not find any differences in functional and psychological scores at 6 weeks in 104 patients randomized between a standard of 30 and 60 minutes of physical therapy. Kwakkel et al randomized 101 middle-cerebral-artery stroke patients with arm and leg impairment to additional arm training emphasis, leg training emphasis, or arm and leg immobilization, each treatment lasting 30 minutes, 5 days a week, for 20 weeks. At 20 weeks the leg training group scored better for ADLs, walking, and dexterity than the control group, whereas the arm training group scored better only for dexterity. The clinical trials provide weak evidence for a dose response relationship of intensity to functional outcomes.

The Atacama Desert Essay -- Chile Geography

The Atacama Desert Abstract Exclusive of the largest mountain ranges and oceans, earth’s most well-known physical features are its great desert regions. The word desert often conjures up ideas of open expanses of sand and towering dunes blown by perpetual wind and dust storms. Moreover, deserts are often categorized as being strictly sandy, hot, and extremely dry. Only part of this assumption is correct. Furthermore, the categorizing of deserts as such illustrates how little knowledge many people in fact have of desert regions of the earth. The notion that all deserts are hot and sandy is especially erroneous. The surrounding landforms, air temperature, and soil composition have no bearing on whether or not a climate region is classified as a dessert. The sole characteristic used in classifying climate regions as a desert is aridity; a lack of moisture (Cressy 390). Deserts can be defined as regions where less than 10 inches of liquid equivalent precipitation falls each year. A better definition is any climatic region where evaporation substantially exceeds precipitation for most of the year (Cressey 390). Thus, based on this definition it is clear that deserts are not regulated to hot low latitude regions of the earth. Deserts are found at all latitudes, and encompass all air temperature ranges found on earth. Deserts types range from hot hyper-arid deserts such as the Sahara to less known and rather unusual cool coastal deserts such as the Atacama. Although the Atacama does embody hyper-arid characteristics, the Atacama Desert is generally classified as a cool coastal desert. The remainder of this paper will focus specifically on the physical characteristics of the Atacama Desert. Topography Located in northern Chile... ...tley, Adrian J. â€Å"150 million years of climatic stability: evidence from the Atacama Desert, northern Chile.† Journal of the Geological Society 162.3 (2005):421-. Kampf, Stephanie K. "Evaporation and land surface energy budget at the Salar de Atacama, Northern Chile." Journal of Hydrology 310.1-4 (2005):236-. Lamb, Simon. â€Å"Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes.† Nature 425.6960 (2003):792-. Light, Mary. â€Å"Atacama Revisited: â€Å"Desert Trails† Seen from the Air.† Geographical Review 36.4 (1946):525-545. Mooney. â€Å"Atmospheric Water Uptake by an Atacama Desert Shrub.† Science 209.4457 (1980):693-694. Oppenheimer, Robert. "National Capital and National Development: Financing Chile." The Business History Review 56.1 (1982):54-75. Rudolph, William. â€Å"The Rio Loa of Northern Chile.† Geographical Review 17.4 (1927):553-585.

Capital Punishment Must be Abolished :: The Case Against the Death Penalty

"Crimes against children are the most heinous crime. That, for me, would be a reason for capital punishment..." -- Clint Eastwood "I could not become an American citizen. I would not like to become a citizen of a country that has capital punishment." -- Werner Herzog In most of the industrialized world, capital punishment is not used to punish criminals. However, it is still used in the United States. The capital punishment debate in the United States has raged for almost four hundred years. Supporters of capital punishment often cite its roles as deterrent and retribution as reasons for their support of the death penalty. Opponents of capital punishment cite its arbitrariness and finality as reasons for their opposition against the death penalty. Because capital punishment can lead to an unequal application of justice, sometimes to the point of executing innocent persons, no amount of argument from its supporters should prevent it from being abolished. The Arguments of Those Who Favor Capital Punishment Supporters of capital punishment begin by arguing that capital punishment deters murder. This view has been held for thousands of years. In his book The Penalty of Death, Thorsten Sellin notes what the famous 18th century English law commentator William Blackstone wrote in his Commentaries on the Laws of England: As to the end or final cause of punishment, this is not by way of atonement...but as a prevention against future offenses of the same kind. This is effected three ways, either by the amendment of the offender...or by deterring others...or lastly by depriving the party injuring of the power to do future mischief. (Sellin 77) This sentiment was expressed by Socrates (in Gorgias) and by his antagonist Demosthenes some 2,000 years before Blackstone (Sellin 3-5). But what evidence is there to support the idea that the death penalty deters potential murderers better than any other form of punishment? Until Professor Isaac Ehrlich released his study on this subject, only anecdotal evidence existed, and that had been provided by people in the law enforcement, judicial, and corrections fields. By 1953, the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment in England noted: ...capital punishment has obviously failed as a deterrent when a murder is committed. We can number its failures. But we cannot number its successes. No one can ever know how many people have refrained from murder because of the fear of being hanged.

Universal Education

11 important Problems of Universalization of Education and their Remedies SWASTIK Universalization of Elementary Education is Constitutional directive. Education is every body's birth-right and it is binding on any government to provide facilities for education for children who are born and reach the school-going age. It was stipulated to achieve Universalization within 10 years from the introduction of Constitution and that is by 1960. But it is now more than three decades after the scheduled time.Now the problems with certain possible remedies to solve them have been discussed as follows: (1) Faulty Policy of Government: The constitutional directive is that states shall endeavour to provide free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years. But it is a matter of regret that the prescribed goal has not been reached as yet. The main cause for this is that the policy of Government was based on idealism. Basic education was accepted as the form of na tional education.Being inspired with this aim, work started to convert the existing primary schools into basic schools. India is a vast country with a very large population. Money was too much in shortage for implementation of so expensive a scheme of conversion of a large number of Elementary Schools. Government has also admitted this. In such a situation, the best policy would have been to make separate treatment for the basic schools along with the general primary and middle schools. (2) Political Difficulties: Education is the basis of democracy.It is necessary to educate the citizens in order to make democracy a success. But so far the Government of India has not been able to devote their full attention towards education. Main reason is that since the attainment of Independence, Government had to face the problems of food, of inimical neighbours, the problem of Kashmir, the problem of linguistic states etc. Those problems still exist and these problems have all along forced to allocate so much money that Government has not been able to devote their due attention for elementary education.The Government is responsible to solve the political problems; the Government is also duty-bound for smooth progress of public education. On no account, this indifference of Government towards universal primary education could be justified. (3) Faulty Administration of Education: In most of the states the responsibility of universal primary education is on the authorities of Blocks, Municipalities and Educational Districts. The progress of expansion of primary education gets slow because of the indifference and incapability of these institutions.In fact, it is the responsibility of the nation to educate its citizens. It is necessary that the Government of India should take upon itself the sacred work of universal enrolment and universal retention at the Elementary stage. In fact it is the responsibility of the action to educate its citizens. (4) Dearth of Money: Inadequacy of money is a serious problem that confronts primary schools. Income of the local institutions responsible for primary education is so much limited that they are totally incapable of meeting the expenditure of compulsory education.To meet the requirements of compulsory basis education it was estimated that an annual expenditure of Rs. 269. 5 crores will be required. But in the First Five Year Plan the allocation was Rs. 93 crores and this allocation was reduced to Rs. 89 crores in the Second Plan. So sincere and honest efforts should be made to educate as many children as possible so as to banish illiteracy to the maximum extent possible. Only after abolition of illiteracy, quality of education as a matter of importance should come. (5) Dearth of Trained Teachers: There is shortage of trained teachers to make Elementary Education Universal and compulsory.Nowadays, the young teachers do not wish to work in rural areas. But the fact remains that majority of Primary Schools are in rur al areas. The chief reason of non-availability of suitable teachers is that teaching work is not attractive for many persons, since the salary of primary teachers is hopelessly low. The condition of Scheduled areas is still more miserable. The hilly and impassable jungle areas with very poor communication and transport facilities fail to attract the present day luxury-loving young men.Teachers should be provided with proper residence in the villages of their work. The question of Women teachers is very much special. So the question of teacher's quarters, residential schools, especially residential Ashram Schools in the Scheduled areas should be provided. The quality of teachers can be improved by executing a training progrmme for the untrained teachers in service on basis of study-leave basis. (6) Establishment and School Buildings: Even the Third and Fourth All India Educational Surveys indicate that even now there are lakhs of villages and habitations without schools.There are nea rly 4 lakhs schoolless villages in India which are to be given schools. It is not that easy to provide necessary funds for setting up such a large number of schools with buildings and other equipments. In order to meet this problem of new buildings along with the existing schools in private houses, temples, verandah of rich persons, residence of teachers etc. should be met by construction of low cost houses of thatch or tile with local materials; looking to the weather conditions of certain places open air stands may be taken up in the ShantiNiketan pattern.All the same, the Primary schools should have accommodations of their own as far as practicable. Problem of school houses along with the problem of lack of teachers in all the primary schools can be solved through shift system in the existing schools. In order to enrol the additional age-group 6-14 children additional section rooms should be constructed. (7) Unsuitable Curriculum: The curriculum for primary schools is narrow and unsuitable to the local needs. The curriculum should be interesting for the children for its continuance.Learning by work should replace the emphasis on monotonous bookish knowledge. Education of craft should be given in the primary schools in accordance with the local needs and requirements. But the schemes of craft education in the primary schools should not of highly expensive ones. (8) Wastage and Stagnation: It is another major problem and great obstacle for universalization of Elementary Education. Out of every 100 students enrolled in class – I more than half leave schools by Class IV, only 32 pupils reach class V and only 26 reach class VIII.This is due to the lack of educational atmosphere, undesirable environment, lack of devoted teachers, poor economic condition of parents, absence of proper equipment etc. In order to check such massive wastage and stagnation at the primary stage, existing educational system and curriculum should be reformed, teaching method should be interesting, school buildings should be adequate and neat and clean, and the parents should be educated. These may help the problem of wastage and stagnation to be solved. (9) Natural Obstacles: Natural barriers are the great obstacles in the way of expansion of compulsory education.The village and small habitations in areas of Himalayan regions, Kashmir, Garhwal, Almora with less population are situated in distances apart. So also the desert areas in Rajasthan, the dense forest areas in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Assam and many Southern States create problems for expected enrolment. These are very very difficult areas with lack of communication and of Education and School Organization absence of transport. It is desirable to make provision, for schooling facilities even in small habitations without leaving much for mobility of small children in the severe cold, heat or heavy rains 10) Social Evils: Social evils like superstition, illiteracy faith in ancient conventions and customs , child marriages, untouchability, pardah system etc. create innumerable obstacle in the expansion of compulsory primary education. Still man; persons get their sons and daughters married at a very minor age against the Child Marriage Prohibition Act and deprive these school-going children of the fruits of education. Because of illiteracy and ignorance these social evils grow. The educated young men and women should volunteer themselves to remove these evils of society in their neighbourhood.Against these social evils, the work of expansion of universal enrolment should not be slackened, since social evils flourish because of illiteracy and ignorance. (11) Language Problem: 1961 Census reports about 826 languages and 1652 dialects in the country. The Constitution of India, 1950 mentions 14 languages, which can be made medium of education. Compulsory education has not been fully introduced among the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and denotified tribes in the country. This is d ue to the hindrances of languages as medium of education.In the Five Year Plans the incentive programmes of free text-books, free uniform, stipends in hostels, and conversion of Residential Ashram Schools etc. do not improve matters much. The responsibility of education of these castes and tribes, who are staggering under the weight of misery and poverty for centuries, should not be left alone on Govt. Voluntary and philanthropic organization and people should come forward to assist the Government in this sacred and significant work of the nation.

Macbeth and Lady Macbeth in Act 2 Scenes 1 and 2 Essay

Introduction The Macbeth play was written around 1603 by William Shakespeare. During this play, Macbeth and Banquo started off as best friends, after they met the three witches, they gave Macbeth some predictions about his future. Macbeth was delighted whereas his wife, Lady Macbeth becomes power crazed about this. She persuaded him to kill the king, Duncan (in Elizabethan times, it was the biggest crime that can be committed). Afterwards his mind started to play tricks on himself, so he decided to go back and revisit the three witches; they then told him three new prophecies. Others now have suspected that Macbeth killed Duncan, so when Macduff went to England, he decided to kill Lady Macduff and her children. When Macduff came back and heard that his family is all killed he was furious and decided to have his revenge. When he arrived, to kill Macbeth, Macbeth on the other hand thought he cannot be harmed due to one of the prophecy that the witches told him but all at the end Macduff won. During the Elizabethan, all of audience believed in many supernatural things such as, witchcraft, religion, owls etc. In this play, the witches show us that they are creepy and unreliable due to all those set ups for Macbeth. This constructs a feeling for the Elizabethan audience that they are horrifying things. Shakespeare presented Macbeth as a brave and loyal person towards the King, he respected the King and is a really good fighter, but later on the play, he started to be controlled and changed into a horrific person. Lady Macbeth made Macbeth kill many innocent people; she is power crazed and evil and would do anything to be the queen. Start of this play, the themes mainly about murders and how Macbeth and Lady Macbeth changed. Section 1 Throughout Act 1 Scene 3, Macbeth was delighted when he heard the three witch’s prediction of his future, ‘Stay, you imperfect speakers. Tell me more’, this quote demonstrates that he wants to know more about his future and he is keen to find out what great things will lie ahead of him. Furthermore, he called the three witches ‘imperfect speakers’, this might due to the fact that he does not really know what they are as he might not seen them before. In addition, the word ‘imperfect’ lets me think of that the three witches are not telling the truth and are hiding some secrets. Macbeth uses a high tone of voice when talking to the three witches, ‘Speak if you can’, from this quote it creates a feeling that Macbeth is from a higher social class who is looking down onto the three witches, perhaps he is trying to give the impression that he is the Thane of Glamis. Macbeth also seemed to be confused that the witches told him, he will become the Thane of Cawdor, ‘But how of Cawdor?’, from this quote it portrays that Macbeth do not really know how he will become the Thane of Cawdor, he currently is quite happy that he is Thane of Glamis. Shakespeare put in this historical question to make people hooked in, as the audience will ask themselves lots of questions such as, how is he going to become the Thane of Cawdor?, how do those witches know? Etc. When the witches finished talking to Banquo and Macbeth, the three witches vanished into the air, ‘Melted, as breath into the wind. Would they have stayed’, this quote shows us that Banquo and Macbeth wondered what happened to them, Shakespeare uses this is due to that during the Elizabethan audience would really believed in witchcraft, this makes people wonder more and ask themselves further questions. Macbeth started off in a really good relationship with his friends and the king. King Duncan really respects Macbeth also Macbeth was a fine fighter for him. ‘O worthiest cousin’, this quote demonstrates that Duncan trusts him a lot and that he is really loyal towards the king. Duncan likes Macbeth, he even call him ‘cousin’ which in my point of view is that Macbeth is like one of Duncan’s cousin and is really kind towards him. The king called him by the title ‘My worthy Cawdor’; this quote suggests that Duncan knows that he is a brave, loyal person. The word ‘Cawdor’ which indicates that he actually is really pleased that Macbeth is the Thane of Cawdor. Near the start of the play, after Lady Macbeth read the letter, she thought that he would not make it to become the king as he is very weak and too kind, this shows us that the relationships between these two are weak, ‘It is too full o’th’milk of human kindness’, this quote indicates that she thinks Macbeth is too kind and would not have the strength to become the King, from this we could really tell that their relationship is very awful. On the other hand, Macbeth and Banquo was best friends near the start of the play, they were two friends that would never break up, ‘Worthy Macbeth’, this quote gives the impression that he really trust in Macbeth and that he is also confident in him, he knows that they would always be friends. Lady Macbeth started off in Act 1 Scene 5 where after she read the letter, she did not have any hope in Macbeth at all, ‘That I may pour my spirits in thine ear’, this quote signifies that she want to tell him what to do so he will not ruin this up as she does not have any trust in him. She described him as being weak and cannot do anything right, ‘It is too full o’th’milk of human kindness’, from this it portrays that she think he is like milk which is pure and white and he does not have any darkness in him. Shakespeare made Lady Macbeth seem really nasty, he probably wants us to know that Lady Macbeth and Macbeth never get on with each other so that it gives us a bad feeling that she is evil and horrible towards other people. Lady Macbeth is also two-faced, she is talks about how to get rid of King Duncan and come up with lots of plans but when she meets the King, she is really kind and pleasant, ‘All our service’, from this quote it shows us that Lady Macbeth is kind and loyal, she wants to give good impression towards the king so that King Duncan will think that Lady Macbeth and Macbeth are very helpful and kind towards people. This gives the audience a feeling that she is very evil and full of darkness. Section 2 For Act 2 Scene 2, it was set during the night when it is dark, ‘with a torch-bearer before him’, this quote suggests that during that time there was no light, only one that the servant is carrying, by setting it in darkness gives people the feeling that someone is going to get murdered, in addition, it gives the Elizabethan audience a feeling of something frightful is about to happen. Shakespeare wants the audience to consider that the place is starting to get suspicious due to that it is dark, ‘There’s husbandry in heaven, Their candles are all out’, this quote indicates that the night is really dark, darker than normal, as he is saying that there is no stars. This gives the audience a feeling that something is like messing with the heaven, this builds up the tension for the play also it hooks the audience to it. Near the start of this scene, Banquo had a feeling that something frightening is about to happen. When someone was coming, Banquo asked for his sword and held out his sword straight away, ‘Give me my sword’, this quote implies that Banquo does not know who it is and he suddenly prepared himself for unexpected visitors. This lets people think of that Banquo is really worried, but he does not know what is going to happen. Shakespeare uses this to give the audience a feeling that Macbeth is up to something and due to late night and still has not gone to sleep. Banquo had a feeling that something is not right which causes him can’t sleep, ‘And yet I would not ‘, this quote gives the impression that Banquo is expecting something to happen so he cannot get to sleep. Banquo mentioned about the three wield sisters, ‘I dreamed last night of the three weà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rd sisters’, this quote portrays that Banquo is testing out Macbeth, he wants to know what reactions Macbeth will have, as Banquo knows that one of the prophecies became true, he is testing out Macbeth to see if he thinks about them. The audience would know that Macbeth thinks about the witches a lot, Shakespeare wants people to understand what kind of person Macbeth is. From this part of the play onwards, the audience would start to see that their friendship is starting to break due to them testing each other because they are trying to find out more about each other. Macbeth responds to it as if he is really surprised about it, ‘I think not of them’, this quote indicates that he quickly tells Banquo that he does not, he do not want Banquo to be suspicious about him as he is about to kill the king. Macbeth wants to talk the three witches, ‘We would spend it in some words upon that business, If you would grand the time’, this quote shows that clearly Macbeth talk about the three witches, also this quote indicates that he is testing Banquo as well to see if he wants to talk about the three witches. In addition, I believe that Macbeth is starting to feel guilty about what he is about to do, he knows he does not want to but have to do it. Macbeth also tests Banquo’s loyalty to him,’ If you shall cleave to my consent, when ’tis, It shall make honour for you’, this quote suggests that Macbeth is testing Banquo’s loyalty to him, he wants Banquo to listen to him but Banquo does not want to betray Duncan, maybe he does not want their friendship to break up, he knows that it will end. Shakespeare keeps the audience entertained by making them worrying about if everything will turn out well, . This makes Banquo suspicious about it, as he does not know why he is saying that as Macbeth knows that Banquo will still be loyal towards the king. Shakespeare uses this to show us that both of them are testing each other to see what and how they will respond to it. Section 3 Shakespeare made Macbeth in a nervous state of mind, ‘Is this a dagger which I see before me’, this quote signifies that Macbeth is already seeing the crime that he is about to commits. He is confused, does not know why he can see the dagger, he thinks the vision is telling him to kill Duncan. Shakespeare uses this to show us that Macbeth’s mind is playing tricks on him, is encouraging him to commit the crime and that he has some evilness in him. The audience would think that he is now crazy and seeing things which is just his mind persuading him to do it. Macbeth is now asking lots of question, ‘Proceeding from the heat-oppressà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d brain?’ this quote portrays that he does not know why he can see the dagger, he is wondering that it might be his brain is over-heated, this makes the audience wonder more about how he can see it, they might even ask themselves question. Shakespeare wants the audience to have a picture in their minds of Macbeth following the dagger and to give us a vision that he can see it but cannot touch it. A quote could be ‘And such an instrument I was to use’, this quote represents that Macbeth got the dagger from his pocket and he is about to use it. Shakespeare made the soliloquy long is to show us how nervous he is, he might want us to think about Lady Macbeth and how evil she is, by persuading Macbeth to kill Duncan. Macbeth shows us that he is really mixed up, he cannot sort out the right from the wrong, and just simply following his wife’s orders. Shakespeare uses a lot of imageries in this part of the soliloquy to increase the tension, ‘And on thy blade and dudgeon gouts of blood,’ this quote indicates that the dagger starts to get dripping blood yet he has not committed a crime. Shakespeare uses foreshadowing to build up the tension for when Macbeth kills the king, maybe he wants to create a feeling like as if we were there next to Macbeth, this hooks in the audiences’ attention. Macbeth been controlled by the witches, ‘Pale Hecate’s off’rings and withered murder’, this quote demonstrates that the goddess of the witches is like controlling him to kill the king, he does not want to do it but the witches are making him do it. The Elizabethan audience believed in witchcraft, they understood that witches are evil. In my opinion, I think that Macbeth knows it is wrong to do but Lady Macbeth convinces him to do it. In Macbeth’s imagination, he sees murder as a withered man, ‘Alarumed by his sentinel wolf’, this quote portrays that he is called to action to kill Duncan. The audience would think that he is been called for the opportunity to kill another victim. Shakespeare uses this to compare Macbeth with other murders and creatures, he wants us to understand the murder he is about to do is massive and that he is like other murders (such as Murder’s sentinel) going to commit a huge crime. At this point, Macbeth describes the murder as moving, ‘thus with his stealthy pace’, this quote shows that he is now pacing like murder itself, walking towards the king’s bedroom. He wants the place to be silent, ‘With Tarquin’s ravishing strides, towards his design’, this quote indicates that he is like Tarquin asking the earth to be unable to hear, so he can like ‘moves like a ghost’ towards the king’s room. Shakespeare uses Tarquin is because all the Elizabethan audience would know that Tarquin was the murderous rapist in Roman, this builds up the tension for when he kills Duncan. Due to the present silence of the night suits the horror of what he is about to do, we see Macbeth, a man who wants to be in the silent and deadly figure of horror. As Macbeth still has not done the murder yet, and he has been saying many threatening things, all the things he said inspired him to do the deed. Then when he heard the bell, ‘A bell rings’ this quote shows that Macbeth finally moves from horrifying words to a horrible deed only when Lady Macbeth’s bell tell him it is time. Section 4 At the start of the scene, Lady Macbeth was excited, ‘That which hath made them drunk, hath made me bold; What hath quenched them, hath given me fire’, this quote suggests that she listens intently, as though she could actually hear the murder being committed. The word ‘them’ refers to are the King’s two personal guards. Lady Macbeth has drugged the grooms’ possets. Lady Macbeth, herself has also had some wine, but she feels bold and fierce, this gives the audience a feeling that she feels happy now that the king has died. From this, it shows us the darkness inside Lady Macbeth. But Lady Macbeth also seems to be nervous about it, ‘An Owl shrieks’ and ‘Hark, peace! It was the owl that shrieked, the fatal bellman, Which gives the stern’st good-night. He is about it’, from these quotes it portrays that she jumped and thought that she was caught when the owl shrieked, she think it as a good omen due to the screech owl is a nature’s own ‘fatal bellman’, the noise of a screech owl foretells the death of a person, therefore, Lady Macbeth is happy about this. Shakespeare also tries to make the Elizabethan audience jump as well because people did not like owls and crickets which they thought that they are horrible animals that bring evilness. She was still nervous when Macbeth arrived, ‘I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry. Did not you speak?’, this quote indicates that she is still frightened and nervous, she asks lots of questions, this shows the lack of security. She even asks her husband if he heard it or not. When Lady Macbeth sees her husband, she thinks that he is a fool, ‘A foolish thought, to say a sorry sight’, this quote represents that she thinks that he is worrying too much about it, she is telling him that it is great. Lady Macbeth does not want Macbeth to be weak. This makes the audience think that she is trying to calm Macbeth down as his mind is like somewhere else. She tries to be kind to Macbeth to quiet him down, ‘Why, worthy thane, You do unbend your noble strength to think’, this quote signifies that she calls him by the title to make him feel happier and she saying that he is strong and brave, as she knows he likes to be the Thane of Cawdor. Shakespeare uses this to try making the audience think that she is cruel and mean on the inside but kind on the outside. After he calmed down, she changes back into a nasty woman, ‘Go get some water And wash this filthy witness from your hand. Why did you bring these daggers from the place?’, this quote demonstrates the ‘filthy witness’ is the blood from Duncan, which acts as a witness to Macbeth’s crime. She is telling Macbeth to do all the work, maybe she does not want to be involved in this. She is also annoyed at Macbeth for bring back the daggers, she demands him to take it back. The audience might think that she does not want Macbeth to be caught, she wants Macbeth to make the grooms look guilty instead of them. Shakespeare wants us to think that she is taking care of all the things and knows what to do, this gives the impression that she is bossy. ‘They must lie there. Go carry them†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ this quote shows us that she wants Macbeth to do it instead of her. The audience would think that she does not want to get her hands dirty and let her husband do all the work, it gives us the impression that she is looking down on Macbeth and he is like her assistant. Macbeth feels really guilty about the murder he has committed, ‘they pluck out mine eyes Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hands?’ this quote portrays that Macbeth feels guilty about what he has done, he known that the crime will never be forgotten, from this we could really tell that he feels sorry for the king, Shakespeare uses hyperbole, metaphor and historical question in this quote to create a image that makes the audience feeling that all the water in the universe cannot erase the witness he has committed also it makes it more realistic. It frightens him when he looks at his hands, he looks at them as though he had never seen them before, and he feels that looking at them is like getting his eyes gouged out. It is the blood on his hands that causes this horrible fascination, and he feels that the blood can never be washed away. Before his hands are clean, they will make all the seas of the world turn red(shows how big his crime was ). Macbeth describes how the blood will turn seas red, ‘The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red’, this quote signifies that nothing will clear away the witness, he will always remember it. We now know that Macbeth feels guilty comparing to Lady Macbeth who thinks it is easy and effortless. ‘A little water clears us of this deed. How easy is it then!’, from this, we could understand that she thinks there is nothing to worry about as no one will ever find out. She said it fast and simple; this gives the audience a feeling that she is not loyal to the king and is full of evilness. She said it easily and effortlessly, Shakespeare uses this to show us that she has no kindness and uses this to compare to Macbeth where he described it complicatedly/complex. Lady Macbeth tried to bring back her husband into the reality by comparing herself with him, ‘My hands are of your colour, but I shame To wear a heart so white’, this quote indicates that her hands are red, too (because she has been busy smearing the King’s blood on the grooms), but that she would be ashamed to have a heart as white as Macbeth’s. A white heart is white because it has no blood, and the person with a white heart is a coward. As she delivers this insult, we hear the knocking again, and Lady Macbeth takes her husband away so that they can wash up. In her opinion, it will only take a little water to make them innocent. The audience would think that Lady Macbeth is being too unforgiving and cruel on Macbeth, also she tells him that it’s childish to be afraid of the sleeping or the dead. Lady Macbeth also tells him he must put on his night-gown, so that if they have to get up and talk to whoever is knocking, it won’t look like they’ve been up all night. The word ‘knocking’ makes me feel that someone is watching them talking about the murder, also Shakespeare added in many ‘knocking’ sounds is because he might want us to think that Duncan has not died yet to calm the audience. He is unresponsive near the end of the scene, ‘To know my deed, ’twere best not know myself’, this quote demonstrates that he seems lost in his thoughts, when Lady Macbeth tells to snap out of it, he thinks about what she has become and the thinks they have done. Now he fully understands what he has done and knows that what a monster he has become. This makes the audience notice that he does not want to know that monster (himself), he knows that he cannot help to do anything better. At the very last, we hear the knocking again, Macbeth wishes none of it had ever happened, as he calls out ‘Wake Duncan with thy knocking: I would thou couldst’, this quote indicates that the knocking showed up a few times which Shakespeare might want us to think about why there is knocking, to ask ourselves questions. Conclusion Shakespeare maintains fear and horror throughout the play by reference to the supernatural, such as animal(owl, cricket), this help the play as the Elizabethan audiences does not like these kinds of creatures as they find them evil. He also uses lots imageries such as metaphors, similes etc. to make the audience entertained and hook into the play and also it helps to build up the tension. Shakespeare has also included soliloquy, hyperbole, asides and the use of the tone of voice, these make the play more realistic and them creepy but enjoyable to watch. Macbeth is a person who is scared at fear, at the beginning of the play, Macbeth is described as a brave, loyal man who is kind, but his wife manipulates him by accusing him of being a coward, and throughout the play he denies his own fears. I think that Macbeth is a fine war lord who is loyal to the king, but he shows some of his cruel side, mostly during the middle part of the play. At first, it appears that Lady Macbeth is the dominant partner that is evil and cruel, but after the murder of King Duncan she loses her grip on her husband and becomes weird as she could not even control herself. She is a two-faced woman who pretends that she is kind and lovely to people, especially the king.